Understanding of Some Humanistic Learning Theories

Humanism

The theories, which come under this umbrella, relate to the nature of the social world and about the knowledge of this world. There is a greater emphasis placed on subjective element of personal experience. Human consciousness makes the social world different from the natural environment. The social world is meaningful and based on perceptions relating to the environment within which we function. ‘Since meaning is not considered to be an effect of the social world, but rather of individual’s intentions and interpretations established through their actions; then in order to understand this world one must do more than merely observe it, one must interpret and understand its significance to the ‘actors’ involved’ (Purdy 1997, pp 193). Therefore the individual and their perception are central to learning within humanistic approach. It puts aside the reductionist approach of the behaviourist and cognitivist; for the behaviourist approach does not take into consideration the consciousness and interpretation ability of the learner and cognitivists do not consider the affective aspect, while the sociological approach seems ‘to reduce the individual to a passive product of the social system’ (Purdy 1997, pp 193).

Humanistic approach to learning encompasses the overall growth of an individual, where Friere feels the learner discovers himself and achieve his humanity by acting upon the world, thereby transforming it (Jarvis 1983, cited by Purdy 1997.) These theories have a great impact on the process of education and curriculum today.

Andragogy / Adult Learning

This theory is proposed by Malcolm Knowles, based on five main assumptions about adults (Knowles 1978). They are :-

1. Adults have a different self-concept. They need to be more self-directed.
2. Adults have a rich source of experience, which contributes to learning.
3. Adults want to confront problem areas, which they regard as relevant. Adults respond to current needs rather than delayed rewards.
4. Adults tend to be problem oriented and not subject oriented. Social roles influence what a person wants to learn.
5. Motivation to learn, as adults have a need to know.

Research indicates that the basic ability to learn remains essentially unimpaired throughout life. Adults should be encouraged to diagnose for themselves their own learning needs and their own objectives for learning. Certain conditions of learning are more conducive to growth and development than others. However critics of Knowles suggest that the way children learn should not be so different to that of adults, indeed the primary purpose of education with children should be to equip them to learn throughout life.

Andragogical model is based on the above mentioned assumptions. Therefore, learning is planned upon the basis of the relevancy of the learning. 

Figure 1

Self-concept of being responsible for own decisions and own life is part of being an adult. This means that adults would like to make their own decision about what they wish and need to learn. Since learning is built upon past experiences as suggested in the earlier part of this section, the role of learner’s experience become important. Adults have a greater volume of experience as well as different quality of experiences (by the virtue of having lived longer). The experiences are more heterogeneous in terms of – background, interests, goals, needs, motivation and learning styles so a greater emphasis on individualisation of teaching and learning strategies is necessary. Use of techniques that tap into experience of learners is likely to be valuable when adults are learning.

Figure 2 Underlying Concepts of Andragogy

Readiness to learn, the law suggested by Thorndike is also taken into consideration by Knowles. He states that the learner must be ready to learn and able to do so in order to cope effectively with real-life situations. Developmental ‘tasks’ associated with moving from one developmental stage to the next enhance readiness. Simulation exercises, problem solving exercises, group discussions, projects, etc seem to be the popular ways of learning for adults as they need to be actively involved in the learning process. Orientation to learning is task / problem centred, as adults are life centred. The improvement in their condition of life is the motivator for learning. Adults are responsive to external motivators like better jobs, promotions and higher salaries. However, the most potent motivators remain internal pressures like job satisfaction, self-esteem and quality of life. Also important is the motivation to keep developing throughout life.

Some of the main criticisms of Knowles work are based on the factors that changes to self-concept occur throughout life. It is not necessary that all adults wish to be self-directed, many may find it hard to be independent learners. While it is true that adults have a larger repertoire of experience to draw upon, the younger learner also has some experience to draw upon as a resource. Motivation is not necessarily the forte of adults, it is very much a part of learning for all. This is evident in the fact that it is referred to in some of the theories already discussed. Day and Baskett (1982, cited by Jarvis 2000, pp. 92) give it merit by stating that, ‘andragogy is not a theory of adult learning, but an educational ideology rooted in an inquiry-based learning and teaching paradigm’.

Experiential Learning

Carl Rogers regards experiential learning as one end of the spectrum while the other end is memory learning. He identifies the following principles of experiential learning :

• Human beings have a natural potentiality to learn. Learning does not have to be stimulated, because it is a natural human drive.
• Significant learning occurs when the learner perceives the relevance of the subject matter. A person learns what he perceives to be necessary for the maintenance or enhancement of own self.
• Learning involves a change in self-organisation and self-perception.
• Learning that threatens self-perception is more easily perceived and assimilated when external threats are at a minimum.
• Learning occurs when self is not threatened and maximised in a threat-free atmosphere.
• Much significant learning is acquired by doing, that is, through experience. Learning is facilitated when the learner participates responsibly in the learning process. When the learner chooses the goals, helps to discover learning resources, formulates problems, decides courses of action, lives with the consequences of each of these choices, then significant learning occurs.
• Learning is facilitated when the learner participates responsibly in the learning process. Learning that involves the whole learner, feeling as well as intellect, is the most lasting and pervasive kind of learning.
• Self-initiated learning involves the whole person.
• Independence, creativity and self-reliance are all facilitated when self-criticism and self-evaluation are basic. Self-criticism is to be encouraged and self evaluation is should be more important than evaluation by others.
• Much socially useful learning is learning the process of learning and retaining an openness to experience, so that the process of change maybe incorporated into the self. (cited by Jarvis 1992)

Thus there are similarities seen in his approach with that of Knowles as they both advocate emphasis on self, in self-direction, self-development and self-actualisation. Rogers argues that ‘the goal of education’ (thereby of learning) ‘is a fully functioning person’ (cited by Jarvis 2000, pp. 97). The teacher is seen as a facilitator of learning rather than unnecessary to the process of learning. The facilitator assists the learner in learning by ensuring a conducive learning environment and necessary resources. The concept of facilitation will be discussed more fully in the later section of this book.

‘Human existence is situated within time and emerges through it, and it has been argued elsewhere that learning is a process through which the human, as opposed to the biological, being grows and develops’ (Jarvis 1992, cited by Jarvis 2000, pp.65). This means that life is about experience and that we develop and mature through the experiences and what we learn from them. Since this is the central focus in learning from experience surely if this process is used consciously learning can be focused and enhanced.  Many theorists like Kolb and Fry (1975), Schon (1983), Boud et al (1985) Gibbs (1988), explain the process of learning from experience as a cyclical in nature, which entails the learner to have an experience, evaluate and reflect on the experience, learn form it and then apply the learning by experimenting. 

Figure 3 Learning through Experience

Though learning may begin at any point in the cycle, generally it starts with an experience, which can occur as a result of an unplanned or planned learning opportunity. This stage is called, concrete experience by Kolb and Fry (1975) or simply as ‘do’ by Kirk (1987). The individual can be actively involved in the situation or the experience or can be an observant. This means that the individual can learn not only from own experience but also from that of others.

The next step in the cycle related to examining the experience minutely. This relates to Schon’s (1991) explanation of reflection, where the learner attends to the feelings and attitudes related to the experience as well as the actual components of the experience. Sense has to be made of this experience so that, conclusions need to be drawn, as to what was done correctly, what could be improved or changed if a similar situation arose again. This stage is called, the reflective observation by Kolb and Fry (1975) or simply ‘review’ by Kirk (1987). Gibbs (1988) and Schon (1991) in their reflective cycle describe this stage in greater detail along with the skills required to reflect appropriately. The importance of this concept makes it central to the process of experiential learning and so worthy of discussion in its own right, so explained further in the next section of this book.

The learner can formulate rules and conceptualise to allow learning to take place. This is the third stage of the cycle. The understanding gained from this experience allows the learner to clarify issues that led to a positive or negative consequence of the actions under scrutiny. This leads to learning about ways of responding to situations that will lead more positive consequences. Kolb and Fry (1975) call this the abstract conceptualisation stage while Kirk (1987) calls it simply ‘learn’.

The last stage in the cycle relates to trying out this new learning by using the rules and concepts in another situation also called active experimentation by Kolb and Fry (1975) or simply ‘apply’ by Kirk (1987). Since we have already stated that the process of learning according to this theory is cyclical in nature, this new experience will be come a starting point for the next cycle of learning.

Experiential learning is also discussed in some depth by Jarvis (2000) as he feels it lends itself to the learner centred approach to education as well as emphasis on learning in the workplace, through work experience has become of importance in education today. He discusses the concept of experience at length. It allows for learning, ‘a process through which the human, as opposed to the biological, being grows and develops’ (Jarvis 2000, pp 65). When people act in a taken for granted manner, almost unconscious manner, it is still a result of prior experiences rather than just intuitive response. However, if this kind of action is not possible as their prior experience does not equip them to deal with the situation, then they have to stop and think, or plan or learn something new. Herein lies the learning from experience. This process of stopping and thinking and defining the problem is essential to learning through experience. This form of learning has become increasingly popular within facilitation of learning in the workplace. Learners gain theoretical understanding within the classroom but the linking of theory to practice comes from the workplace experience, by working through the experiential learning cycle. Thus learning by this process can address all the three domains – cognitive, conative and affective, suggested by Bloom (Brockbank and McGill (1999).